From 1460 to 1600, the primary missile weapons observed on many European battlefields were the crossbow, the longbow, and the cannon. The widespread usage of these lethal weapon systems dramatically transformed warfare tactics, techniques, and procedures. In Europe, this was the era of early modern warfare when the increase in gunpowder and cannon usage meant that castles were no longer an adequate defense against the enemy. This led to the construction of fortresses.
Both cannons and handguns were employed against enemy forces, adding artillery to infantry divisions and cavalry. Although the flintlock system was developed, firearms were not always reliable and often injured the soldier firing the weapon rather than inflicting death on the enemy. Many soldiers lived in extreme poverty. They were also poorly disciplined and they were more likely to die from disease than combat assault from the enemy.
In Europe both knights and their horses wore heavy plate armor. Some knights had to be winched onto their horses. However, body armor fell out of use when crossbows, longbows, and guns became common on the battlefield.
The Crossbow
The crossbow was a weapon used in war and sport in medieval Europe. It consisted of a wooden handle, with a bow made of wood, iron, or steel crossing it at right angles. The bowstring, held in a notch by a catch or trigger, was pulled back by a lever, which in the smaller bows was worked by hand or foot. The missile to be shot was then laid in a groove on the top of the stock, and when the trigger was pulled the missile was propelled with considerable power. The larger crossbows, which threw heavy missiles, were military weapons and required several men to operate them. The crossbow was used in England chiefly during the 13th century. Following this period, the crossbow was eventually replaced by the longbow.
The Longbow
The longbow was the leading missile weapon of the English bowmen between the 14th and 16th centuries. This Welsh origin weapon system was roughly two meters in length and shot arrows longer than one meter. The best were yew made and they required 45 kilograms of force to draw, which had an effective range of 200 meters. English archers employed longbows during the Hundred Years’ War, and the weapon played a decisive role in the battles of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. However, the longbow was eventually replaced by more powerful gunpowder weapons.
Gunpowder Invention
Gunpowder is an explosive powder used in ballistics. Gunpowder was the first explosive known to European military men. Although the formula for gunpowder appears in the writings of the 13th century English monk Roger Bacon, it appears to have been invented and developed by Chinese alchemists, who employed it in firecrackers several hundred years before his time. Gunpowder was probably introduced into Europe from the Middle East. Muslim warriors used gunpowder cannons in the Battle of Constantinople in 1453. Berthold Schwarz, a German monk of the early 14th century, may have been the first person to employ gunpowder for propelling projectiles through cannons.
Cannons and Siege Warfare
European armies first used gunpowder in cannons as combat weapons. However, during that time, all cannons using gunpowder were usually heavy and large, which required many men to deploy these weapons for combat and the cannons were awkward and cumbersome to handle.
When cannons first appeared on the European battlefield during the 14th century, their primary use was for attacking and destroying stone castles. The rapid siege cannon evolution quickly made the castle walls for main defense obsolete. The siege cannon meant the attacking offensive forces were now favored over defenders to become the battle victor. Since cannons improved siege warfare and offensive tacti
Defenders learned that slopping wall castles would deflect the cannon shots and allow the walls to remain intact. Castles with their tall and thin walls became useless for defense. European castles were replaced with strong fortresses. These fortresses were built with thick slopping heavy stone walls. Because these fortresses could withstand, survive, and sustain heavy cannon fire, they were responsible for restoration of siege warfare tactic as the primary technique for attacking defensive positions.
Related Sources: Craughwell, Thomas J.; The Book of Inventions, Tess Press Publication, 2008. Grant, R.G.; Battle; DK Publications, 2005. Lanning, LT. COL. (RET.) Michael Lee AND Bob Rosenburgh; THE BATTLE 100; Sourcebooks: New York, 2003. Roberts, Andrew and others; The Art of War; Quercus Publication, 2008. Zimmerman, Dwight Jon; The Book Of War; Tess Press Publications, 2008. Zimmerman, Dwight Jon; The Book Of Weapons; Tess Press Publications, 2009.