The geography and climate account for much of Egypt’s stability in the course of 3000 years of ancient history. Herodotus, the Greek historian of the fifth century B.C.E., identified the determinant role that geography played in the region’s history when he described Egypt as “the gift of the Nile.” Rising 4000 miles to the south in Central Africa, the Nile runs its course northwards to the Mediterranean. Rapids make the river impassible at six points. The northernmost of these rapids lies 750 miles from the sea at Syrene. This point marked the northern boundary of Upper Egypt, which ran six hundred miles to the south. Lower Egypt consisted of the final 150 miles of the river’s course. In Lower Egypt, the Nile breaks into channels resembling a triangle.

ANCIENT EGYPT VS EARLY MESOPOTAMIA

Egypt offers a sharp contrast to the inhospitable conditions present in Mesopotamia. The Nile does not flood erratically like the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Additionally, the soil is richer in the Nile valley, allowing two crops a year. The deserts in the west and east, equatorial jungles in the south, and the Mediterranean in the north separate Egypt from potential adversaries. Ancient Egyptian history divides into seven periods.

ARCHAIC PERIOD

The archaic period, from 5000 to 2685 B.C.E, was the first major era in Egyptian history. By 5000 BCE, prehistoric Egyptians had passed into the Neolithic Age. The Egyptians’ agriculture was well developed, and they used copper for making tools. Sometime prior to 3000 BCE, the Egyptians invented a system of writing. Researchers believe that the Mesopotamians influenced the Egyptian “hieroglyphs”. By 3000 BCE, there were more than 40 large settlements along the Nile River. Many Egyptologists credit Narmer or Menes with unifying Upper and Lower Egypt. Many historians consider him the first Pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians never used the word pharaoh. This expression came into general usage because of the Holy Scriptures.

OLD KINGDOM

The Old Kingdom, from 2685 to 2180 BCE, began the second major period in Egyptian history. The Old Kingdom consisted of the first six dynasties of Egyptian rulers. During this period most of the traditions that were to become characteristic of Egyptian life for the next two thousand years appeared. The Egyptians believe the king was a living god who held absolute power. During the Third Dynasty in 2650 BCE, the Egyptians moved their capital to Memphis, which is just north of the beginning of the Delta. The Egyptians built their pyramids during the Fourth Dynasty sometime between 2600 and 2400 BCE.

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

The First Intermediate Period, from 2180 to 2040BCE, was the third major era in Egyptian history. There are at least three reasons, which account for the collapse of central government in the Old Kingdom. First, the expenditures necessary for projects such as the pyramids exhausted the state’s revenues. Second, climatic disasters reduced the amount of grain, weakening the state. Finally, the nobility grew powerful and autonomous. During the First Intermediate Period, power reverted to the regional authorities.

MIDDLE KINGDOM

The Middle Kingdom, from 2040 to 1785 BCE, was the fourth major season of Egyptian history. This period of disorder and anarchy ended when a powerful noble family from Thebes subdued their rivals and established a new dynasty in 2040 BCE. The Middle Kingdom was one of brilliance. During the Twelfth Dynasty, the Pharaohs undertook a massive land reclamation project at an oasis west of the Nile (The Fayum). The Egyptians constructed Dams and reservoirs to insure adequate water supply throughout the year. The Thirteenth Dynasty in 1785 BCE, already weakened because of a resurgence of the nobility, fell victim to external invaders.

SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

The Second Intermediate Period, from 1785 to 1560 BCE, was the fifth major era of Egyptian history.  The Hyksos invasion of Egypt marks a turning point in Egyptian history. Before 1700 BCE, Egypt had appeared unconquerable. For many Egyptologists, they are uncertain precisely where the Hyksos originated, but some argue that the Hyksos came from region of Turkey and the Black Sea. The Hyksos brought three technological innovations, which included the use of horses, chariots, and body armor. The Hyksos attempted to establish themselves as the rulers of Egypt. However, by 1560BCE, the Egyptians drove most of Hyksos population out of Egypt, and enslaved the remaining Hyksos people.

NEW KNGDOM

The New Kingdom, from1560 to1085 BCE, began the sixth major period of Egyptian history.  The Hyksos invasion left a lasting impression on Egypt. The Egyptian sense of stability and security was shattered. Under the New Kingdom the Pharaohs followed a policy of expansion that saw them dominate Nubia in the south and send their armies into Palestine and Syria. Two new classes came into being: professional soldiers and slaves. It was during this period that the Jews fell under the Pharaoh’s power. The Egyptian Empire reached its zenith by 1400 B.C.E. The Empire endured for four centuries. By 1085 BCE, the Egyptians had lost their Asian empire. Economic disasters ensued and the New Kingdom collapsed with the end of the Twentieth Dynasty.

POST-EMPIRE ERA

The Post-Empire era, from 1085 to 30 BCE, was the seventh and final period of ancient Egyptian history. Foreigners continually invaded Egypt between 1085 and 30 BCE. The barbaric Libyans and Nubians were the first to attack. Between 663 and 525 BCE, Egypt was part of the Assyrian Empire. The Persians controlled Egypt between 525 and 325 BCE. Alexander the Great’s armies conquered Egypt in 332 BCE and made it part of his Empire. In 30 BCE, the Romans succeeded in bringing Egypt under their control. The Roman conquest of Egypt brought an end the ancient Egyptian Empire.

PRIMARY SOURCES: The essentials of Ancient History by Dr. Gordon M Patterson. When We Ruled by Robin Walker (AKA: The Black History Man). Ancient Egyptians by Charlotte Booth. Agnese, Giorgio, and Maurizio Re. Ancient Egypt: Art and Archaeology of the Land of the Pharaohs. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2004. Burstein, Stanley Mayer. The Reign of Cleopatra. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Payne, Elizabeth. The Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House, 1981. Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Silverman, David P., ed. Ancient Egypt. New York:Oxford University Press, 1997